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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">User interface</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the boundary between computer systems, see <a href="Interface_(computing)" title="Interface (computing)">Interface (computing)</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Man–machine interface" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="UI_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="UI (disambiguation)">UI (disambiguation)</a>. For the communications protocol, see <a href="GSM_Man-Machine_Interface" class="mw-redirect" title="GSM Man-Machine Interface">GSM Man-Machine Interface</a>.</div>

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<p>In the <a href="Industrial_design" title="Industrial design">industrial design</a> field of <a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">human–computer interaction</a>, a <b>user interface</b> (<b>UI</b>) is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. The goal of this interaction is to allow effective operation and control of the machine from the human end, while the machine simultaneously feeds back information that aids the operators' <a href="Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> process. Examples of this broad concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a>, hand <a href="Tool" title="Tool">tools</a>, <a href="Heavy_machinery" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy machinery">heavy machinery</a> operator controls and <a href="Unit_operation" title="Unit operation">process</a> controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to, or involve such disciplines as, <a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">ergonomics</a> and <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>.

</p><p>Generally, the goal of <a href="User_interface_design" title="User interface design">user interface design</a> is to produce a user interface that makes it easy, efficient, and enjoyable (user-friendly) to operate a machine in the way which produces the desired result (i.e. maximum <a href="Usability" title="Usability">usability</a>). This generally means that the operator needs to provide minimal input to achieve the desired output, and also that the machine minimizes undesired outputs to the user.

</p><p>User interfaces are composed of one or more layers, including a <b>human–machine interface</b> (<b>HMI</b>) that typically interfaces machines with physical <a href="Input_device" title="Input device">input hardware</a> (such as keyboards, mice, or game pads) and output hardware (such as <a href="Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">computer monitors</a>, speakers, and <a href="Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">printers</a>). A device that implements an HMI is called a <a href="Human_interface_device" title="Human interface device">human interface device</a> (HID). User interfaces that dispense with the physical movement of body parts as an intermediary step between the brain and the machine use no input or output devices except electrodes alone; they are called <a href="Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">brain–computer interfaces</a> (BCIs) or <a href="Brain%E2%80%93machine_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain–machine interface">brain–machine interfaces</a> (BMIs).

</p><p>Other terms for human–machine interfaces are <b>man–machine interface</b> (<b>MMI</b>) and, when the machine in question is a computer, <b>human–computer interface</b>. Additional UI layers may interact with one or more human senses, including: tactile UI (<a href="Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">touch</a>), visual UI (<a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">sight</a>), auditory UI (<a href="Hearing" title="Hearing">sound</a>), olfactory UI (<a href="Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">smell</a>), equilibria UI (<a href="Sense_of_balance" title="Sense of balance">balance</a>), and gustatory UI (<a href="Taste" title="Taste">taste</a>).

</p><p><b>Composite user interfaces</b> (<b>CUIs</b>) are UIs that interact with two or more senses. The most common CUI is a <i><a href="Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interface</a></i> (GUI), which is composed of a tactile UI and a visual UI capable of displaying <a href="Graphics" title="Graphics">graphics</a>. When sound is added to a GUI, it becomes a <i>multimedia user interface</i> (MUI). There are three broad categories of CUI: <i>standard</i>, <i>virtual</i> and <i>augmented</i>. Standard CUI use standard human interface devices like keyboards, mice, and computer monitors. When the CUI blocks out the real world to create a <a href="Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">virtual reality</a>, the CUI is virtual and uses a <i>virtual reality interface</i>. When the CUI does not block out the real world and creates <a href="Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">augmented reality</a>, the CUI is augmented and uses an <i>augmented reality interface</i>. When a UI interacts with all human senses, it is called a qualia interface, named after the theory of <a href="Qualia" title="Qualia">qualia</a>. CUI may also be classified by how many senses they interact with as either an X-sense virtual reality interface or X-sense augmented reality interface, where X is the number of senses interfaced with. For example, a <a href="Smell-O-Vision" title="Smell-O-Vision">Smell-O-Vision</a> is a 3-sense (3S) Standard CUI with visual display, sound and smells; when <i>virtual reality interfaces</i> interface with smells and touch it is said to be a 4-sense (4S) virtual reality interface; and when <i>augmented reality interfaces</i> interface with smells and touch it is said to be a 4-sense (4S) augmented reality interface.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div>

<p>The user interface or <i>human–machine interface</i> is the part of the machine that handles the human–machine interaction. Membrane switches, rubber keypads and touchscreens are examples of the physical part of the Human Machine Interface which we can see and touch.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In complex systems, the human–machine interface is typically computerized. The term <i>human–computer interface</i> refers to this kind of system. In the context of computing, the term typically extends as well to the software dedicated to control the physical elements used for <a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">human–computer interaction</a>.

</p><p>The engineering of human–machine interfaces is enhanced by considering <a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">ergonomics</a> (<a href="Human_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors">human factors</a>). The corresponding disciplines are <a href="Human_factors_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors engineering">human factors engineering</a> (HFE) and <a href="Usability_engineering" title="Usability engineering">usability engineering</a> (UE) which is part of <a href="Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">systems engineering</a>.

</p><p>Tools used for incorporating human factors in the interface design are developed based on knowledge of <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, such as <a href="Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">computer graphics</a>, <a href="Operating_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Operating systems">operating systems</a>, <a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming languages</a>. Nowadays, we use the expression <a href="Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interface</a> for human–machine interface on computers, as nearly all of them are now using graphics.

</p><p><a href="Multimodal_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Multimodal interface">Multimodal interfaces</a> allow users to interact using more than one <a href="Modality_(human%E2%80%93computer_interaction)" title="Modality (human–computer interaction)">modality</a> of user input.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2></div>

<p>There is a difference between a user interface and an operator interface or a human–machine interface (HMI).

</p>

<ul><li>The term "user interface" is often used in the context of (personal) computer systems and <a href="Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic devices</a>.

<ul><li>Where a network of equipment or computers are interlinked through an MES (Manufacturing Execution System)-or Host to display information.</li>

<li>A human–machine interface (HMI) is typically local to one machine or piece of equipment, and is the interface method between the human and the equipment/machine. An operator interface, on the other hand, is the interface method by which multiple pieces of equipment, linked by a host control system, are accessed or controlled.</li>

<li>The system may expose several user interfaces to serve different kinds of users. For example, a <a href="Digital_library" title="Digital library">computerized library database</a> might provide two user interfaces, one for library patrons (limited set of functions, optimized for ease of use) and the other for library personnel (wide set of functions, optimized for efficiency).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li>

<li>The user interface of a <a href="Machine" title="Machine">mechanical</a> system, a vehicle or an <a href="Industry_(manufacturing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Industry (manufacturing)">industrial</a> installation is sometimes referred to as the human–machine interface (HMI).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HMI is a modification of the original term MMI (man–machine interface).<sup id="cite_ref-Nigeria_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nigeria-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used<sup id="cite_ref-Nigeria_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nigeria-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although some may claim that MMI stands for something different now. Another abbreviation is HCI, but is more commonly used for <a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">human–computer interaction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nigeria_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nigeria-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other terms used are operator interface console (OIC) and operator interface terminal (OIT).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However it is abbreviated, the terms refer to the 'layer' that separates a human that is operating a machine from the machine itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Nigeria_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nigeria-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Without a clean and usable interface, humans would not be able to interact with information systems.</li></ul>

<p>In <a href="Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a>, HMI is sometimes used to refer to what is better described as a <a href="Direct_neural_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct neural interface">direct neural interface</a>. However, this latter usage is seeing increasing application in the real-life use of (medical) <a href="Prostheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostheses">prostheses</a>—the artificial extension that replaces a missing body part (e.g., <a href="Cochlear_implants" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochlear implants">cochlear implants</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In some circumstances, computers might observe the user and react according to their actions without specific commands. A means of <a href="Positional_tracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Positional tracking">tracking parts of the body</a> is required, and sensors noting the position of the head, <a href="Eye_tracking" title="Eye tracking">direction of gaze</a> and so on have been used experimentally. This is particularly relevant to <a href="Immersive_digital_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersive digital environment">immersive interfaces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>The history of user interfaces can be divided into the following phases according to the dominant type of user interface:

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1945–1968:_Batch_interface">1945–1968: Batch interface</h3></div>

<p>In the batch era, computing power was extremely scarce and expensive. User interfaces were rudimentary. Users had to accommodate computers rather than the other way around; user interfaces were considered overhead, and software was designed to keep the processor at maximum utilization with as little overhead as possible.

</p><p>The input side of the user interfaces for batch machines was mainly <a href="Punched_card" title="Punched card">punched cards</a> or equivalent media like <a href="Paper_tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Paper tape">paper tape</a>. The output side added <a href="Line_printer" title="Line printer">line printers</a> to these media. With the limited exception of the system <a href="System_console" class="mw-redirect" title="System console">operator's console</a>, human beings did not interact with batch machines in real time at all.

</p><p>Submitting a job to a batch machine involved first preparing a deck of punched cards that described a program and its dataset. The program cards were not punched on the computer itself but on <a href="Keypunch" title="Keypunch">keypunches</a>, specialized, typewriter-like machines that were notoriously bulky, unforgiving, and prone to mechanical failure. The software interface was similarly unforgiving, with very strict syntaxes designed to be parsed by the smallest possible compilers and interpreters.

</p>

<p>Once the cards were punched, one would drop them in a job queue and wait. Eventually, operators would feed the deck to the computer, perhaps mounting <a href="Magnetic_tape_data_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic tape data storage">magnetic tapes</a> to supply another dataset or helper software. The job would generate a printout, containing final results or an abort notice with an attached error log. Successful runs might also write a result on magnetic tape or generate some data cards to be used in a later computation.

</p><p>The <a href="Turnaround_time" title="Turnaround time">turnaround time</a> for a single job often spanned entire days. If one was very lucky, it might be hours; there was no real-time response. But there were worse fates than the card queue; some computers required an even more tedious and error-prone process of toggling in programs in binary code using console switches. The very earliest machines had to be partly rewired to incorporate program logic into themselves, using devices known as <a href="Plugboard" title="Plugboard">plugboards</a>.

</p><p>Early batch systems gave the currently running job the entire computer; program decks and tapes had to include what we would now think of as <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> code to talk to I/O devices and do whatever other housekeeping was needed. Midway through the batch period, after 1957, various groups began to experiment with so-called "<a href="Compile_and_go_system" title="Compile and go system">load-and-go</a>" systems. These used a <a href="Resident_monitor" title="Resident monitor">monitor program</a> which was always resident on the computer. Programs could call the monitor for services. Another function of the monitor was to do better error checking on submitted jobs, catching errors earlier and more intelligently and generating more useful feedback to the users. Thus, monitors represented the first step towards both operating systems and explicitly designed user interfaces.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1969–present:_Command-line_user_interface">1969–present: Command-line user interface</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">Command-line interface</a></div>

<p><b>Command-line interfaces</b> (<b>CLIs</b>) evolved from batch monitors connected to the system console. Their interaction model was a series of request-response transactions, with requests expressed as textual commands in a specialized vocabulary. Latency was far lower than for batch systems, dropping from days or hours to seconds. Accordingly, command-line systems allowed the user to change their mind about later stages of the transaction in response to real-time or near-real-time feedback on earlier results. Software could be exploratory and interactive in ways not possible before. But these interfaces still placed a relatively heavy <a href="Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> load on the user, requiring a serious investment of effort and learning time to master.<sup id="cite_ref-anaheimguide_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anaheimguide-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The earliest command-line systems combined <a href="Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">teleprinters</a> with computers, adapting a mature technology that had proven effective for mediating the transfer of information over wires between human beings. Teleprinters had originally been invented as devices for automatic telegraph transmission and reception; they had a history going back to 1902 and had already become well-established in newsrooms and elsewhere by 1920. In reusing them, economy was certainly a consideration, but psychology and the <a href="Principle_of_least_astonishment" title="Principle of least astonishment">rule of least surprise</a> mattered as well; teleprinters provided a point of interface with the system that was familiar to many engineers and users.

</p>

<p>The widespread adoption of video-display terminals (VDTs) in the mid-1970s ushered in the second phase of command-line systems. These cut latency further, because characters could be thrown on the phosphor dots of a screen more quickly than a printer head or carriage can move. They helped quell conservative resistance to interactive programming by cutting ink and paper consumables out of the cost picture, and were to the first TV generation of the late 1950s and 60s even more iconic and comfortable than teleprinters had been to the computer pioneers of the 1940s.

</p><p>Just as importantly, the existence of an accessible screen—a two-dimensional display of text that could be rapidly and reversibly modified—made it economical for software designers to deploy interfaces that could be described as visual rather than textual. The pioneering applications of this kind were computer games and text editors; close descendants of some of the earliest specimens, such as <a href="Rogue_(video_game)" title="Rogue (video game)">rogue</a>(6), and <a href="Vi_(text_editor)" title="Vi (text editor)">vi</a>(1), are still a live part of <a href="Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> tradition.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1985:_SAA_user_interface_or_text-based_user_interface">1985: SAA user interface or text-based user interface</h3></div>

<p>In 1985, with the beginning of <a href="Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> and other <a href="Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interfaces</a>, IBM created what is called the <a href="IBM_Systems_Application_Architecture" title="IBM Systems Application Architecture">Systems Application Architecture</a> (SAA) standard which include the <a href="IBM_Common_User_Access" title="IBM Common User Access">Common User Access</a> (CUA) derivative. CUA successfully created what we know and use today in Windows, and most of the more recent <a href="DOS" title="DOS">DOS</a> or Windows Console Applications will use that standard as well.

</p><p>This defined that a pulldown menu system should be at the top of the screen, status bar at the bottom, shortcut keys should stay the same for all common functionality (F2 to Open for example would work in all applications that followed the SAA standard). This greatly helped the speed at which users could learn an application so it caught on quick and became an industry standard.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1968–present:_Graphical_user_interface">1968–present: Graphical user interface</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">Graphical user interface</a></div>

<ul><li>1968 – <a href="Douglas_Engelbart" title="Douglas Engelbart">Douglas Engelbart</a> demonstrated <a href="NLS_(computer_system)" title="NLS (computer system)">NLS</a>, a system which uses a <a href="Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">mouse</a>, <a href="Pointer_(user_interface)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pointer (user interface)">pointers</a>, <a href="Hypertext" title="Hypertext">hypertext</a>, and multiple <a href="Window_(computing)" title="Window (computing)">windows</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-harding_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harding-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>1970 – Researchers at <a href="PARC_(company)" title="PARC (company)">Xerox Palo Alto Research Center</a> (many from <a href="SRI_International" title="SRI International">SRI</a>) develop <a href="WIMP_(computing)" title="WIMP (computing)">WIMP</a> paradigm (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointers)<sup id="cite_ref-harding_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harding-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>1973 – <a href="Xerox_Alto" title="Xerox Alto">Xerox Alto</a>: commercial failure due to expense, poor user interface, and lack of programs<sup id="cite_ref-harding_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harding-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>1979 – <a href="Steve_Jobs" title="Steve Jobs">Steve Jobs</a> and other <a href="Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple</a> engineers visit Xerox PARC. Though <a href="Pirates_of_Silicon_Valley" title="Pirates of Silicon Valley">Pirates of Silicon Valley</a> dramatizes the events, Apple had already been working on developing a GUI, such as the Macintosh and Lisa projects, before the visit.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>1981 – <a href="Xerox_Star" title="Xerox Star">Xerox Star</a>: focus on <a href="WYSIWYG" title="WYSIWYG">WYSIWYG</a>. Commercial failure (25K sold) due to cost ($16K each), performance (minutes to save a file, couple of hours to recover from crash), and poor marketing</li>

<li>1982 – <a href="Rob_Pike" title="Rob Pike">Rob Pike</a> and others at <a href="Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> designed <a href="Blit_(computer_terminal)" title="Blit (computer terminal)">Blit</a>, which was released in 1984 by AT&T and <a href="Teletype" class="mw-redirect" title="Teletype">Teletype</a> as DMD 5620 terminal.</li>

<li>1984 – Apple <a href="Macintosh_128K" title="Macintosh 128K">Macintosh</a> popularizes the <a href="GUI" class="mw-redirect" title="GUI">GUI</a>. <a href="Super_Bowl_commercials#Macintosh:_.221984.22" title="Super Bowl commercials">Super Bowl commercial</a> shown twice, was the most expensive commercial ever made at that time</li>

<li>1984 – <a href="MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>'s <a href="X_Window_System" title="X Window System">X Window System</a>: hardware-independent platform and networking protocol for developing GUIs on UNIX-like systems</li>

<li>1985 – <a href="Windows_1.0" title="Windows 1.0">Windows 1.0</a> – provided GUI interface to MS-DOS. No overlapping windows (tiled instead).</li>

<li>1985 – Microsoft and IBM start work on OS/2 meant to eventually replace MS-DOS and Windows</li>

<li>1986 – Apple threatens to sue <a href="Digital_Research" title="Digital Research">Digital Research</a> because their GUI desktop looked too much like Apple's Mac.</li>

<li>1987 – <a href="Windows_2.0" title="Windows 2.0">Windows 2.0</a> – Overlapping and resizable windows, keyboard and mouse enhancements</li>

<li>1987 – Macintosh II: first full-color Mac</li>

<li>1988 – <a href="OS/2" title="OS/2">OS/2</a> 1.10 Standard Edition (SE) has GUI written by Microsoft, looks a lot like Windows 2</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interface_design">Interface design</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="User_interface_design" title="User interface design">User interface design</a></div>

<p>Primary methods used in the interface design include prototyping and simulation.

</p><p>Typical human–machine interface design consists of the following stages: interaction specification, interface software specification and prototyping:

</p>

<ul><li>Common practices for interaction specification include <a href="User-centered_design" title="User-centered design">user-centered design</a>, <a href="Persona" title="Persona">persona</a>, activity-oriented design, scenario-based design, and resiliency design.</li>

<li>Common practices for interface software specification include <a href="Use_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="Use cases">use cases</a> and constrain enforcement by <a href="Interaction_protocol" title="Interaction protocol">interaction protocols</a> (intended to avoid use errors).</li>

<li>Common practices for prototyping are based on libraries of interface elements (controls, decoration, etc.).</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Principles_of_quality">Principles of quality</h3></div>

<p>In broad terms, interfaces generally regarded as user friendly, efficient, intuitive, etc. are typified by one or more particular qualities. For the purpose of example, a non-exhaustive list of such characteristics follows:

</p>

<ol><li>Clarity: The interface avoids ambiguity by making everything clear through language, flow, hierarchy and metaphors for visual elements.</li>

<li><a href="Concision" title="Concision">Concision</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-artofunix_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-artofunix-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However ironically, the over-clarification of information—for instance, by labelling the majority, if not the entirety, of items displayed on-screen at once, and regardless of whether or not the user would in fact require a visual indicator of some kind in order to identify a given item—can, and, under most normal circumstances, most likely will lead to the obfuscation of whatever information.</li>

<li>Familiarity:<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even if someone uses an interface for the first time, certain elements can still be familiar. Real-life metaphors can be used to communicate meaning.</li>

<li><a href="Responsiveness" title="Responsiveness">Responsiveness</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A good interface should not feel sluggish. This means that the interface should provide good feedback to the user about what's happening and whether the user's input is being successfully processed.</li>

<li>Consistency:<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Keeping your interface consistent across your application is important because it allows users to recognize usage patterns.</li>

<li><a href="Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a>: While you do not need to make an interface attractive for it to do its job, making something look good will make the time your users spend using your application more enjoyable; and happier users can only be a good thing.</li>

<li><a href="Efficiency" title="Efficiency">Efficiency</a>: Time is money, and a great interface should make the user more productive through shortcuts and good design.</li>

<li><a href="Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">Forgiveness</a>: A good interface should not punish users for their mistakes but should instead provide the means to remedy them.</li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Principle_of_least_astonishment">Principle of least astonishment</h3></div>

<p>The <a href="Principle_of_least_astonishment" title="Principle of least astonishment">principle of least astonishment</a> (POLA) is a general principle in the design of all kinds of interfaces. It is based on the idea that human beings can only pay full attention to one thing at one time,<sup id="cite_ref-Raskin_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raskin-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to the conclusion that novelty should be minimized.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Principle_of_habit_formation">Principle of habit formation</h3></div>

<p>If an interface is used persistently, the user will unavoidably develop <a href="Habit" title="Habit">habits</a> for using the interface. The designer's role can thus be characterized as ensuring the user forms good habits. If the designer is experienced with other interfaces, they will similarly develop habits, and often make unconscious assumptions regarding how the user will interact with the interface.<sup id="cite_ref-Raskin_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raskin-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_model_of_design_criteria:_User_Experience_Honeycomb">A model of design criteria: User Experience Honeycomb</h3></div>

<p>Peter Morville of <a href="Google" title="Google">Google</a> designed the User Experience Honeycomb framework in 2004 when leading operations in user interface design. The framework was created to guide user interface design. It would act as a guideline for many web development students for a decade.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ol><li>Usable: Is the design of the system easy and simple to use? The application should feel familiar, and it should be easy to use.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Useful: Does the application fulfill a need? A business's product or service needs to be useful.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Desirable: Is the design of the application sleek and to the point? The aesthetics of the system should be attractive, and easy to translate.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Findable: Are users able to quickly find the information they are looking for? Information needs to be findable and simple to navigate. A user should never have to hunt for your product or information.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Accessibility" title="Accessibility">Accessible</a>: Does the application support enlarged text without breaking the framework? An application should be accessible to those with disabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Credible: Does the application exhibit trustworthy security and company details? An application should be transparent, secure, and honest.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Valuable: Does the end-user think it's valuable? If all 6 criteria are met, the end-user will find value and trust in the application.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div>

<ol><li><i><a href="Attentive_user_interface" title="Attentive user interface">Attentive user interfaces</a></i> manage the user <a href="Attention" title="Attention">attention</a> deciding when to interrupt the user, the kind of warnings, and the level of detail of the messages presented to the user.</li>

<li><i>Batch interfaces</i> are non-interactive user interfaces, where the user specifies all the details of the <i>batch job</i> in advance to <a href="Batch_processing" title="Batch processing">batch processing</a>, and receives the output when all the processing is done. The computer does not prompt for further input after the processing has started.</li>

<li><i><a href="Command_line_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Command line interface">Command line interfaces</a></i> (CLIs) prompt the user to provide input by typing a <a href="Command_(computing)" title="Command (computing)">command string</a> with the computer keyboard and respond by outputting text to the computer monitor. Used by programmers and system administrators, in engineering and scientific environments, and by technically advanced personal computer users.</li>

<li><i><a href="Conversational_interfaces" class="mw-redirect" title="Conversational interfaces">Conversational interfaces</a></i> enable users to command the computer with plain text English (e.g., via text messages, or chatbots) or voice commands, instead of graphic elements. These interfaces often emulate human-to-human conversations.<sup id="cite_ref-cbc_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cbc-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><i>Conversational interface agents</i> attempt to personify the computer interface in the form of an animated person, robot, or other character (such as Microsoft's Clippy the paperclip), and present interactions in a conversational form.</li>

<li><i><a href="Crossing-based_interface" title="Crossing-based interface">Crossing-based interfaces</a></i> are graphical user interfaces in which the primary task consists in crossing boundaries instead of pointing.</li>

<li><i><a href="Direct_manipulation_interface" title="Direct manipulation interface">Direct manipulation interface</a></i> is a general class of user interfaces that allow users to manipulate objects presented to them, using actions that correspond to the physical world, at least loosely.</li>

<li><i><a href="Gesture_recognition" title="Gesture recognition">Gesture interfaces</a></i> are graphical user interfaces which accept input in a form of hand <a href="Gesture" title="Gesture">gestures</a>, or <a href="Mouse_gesture" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouse gesture">mouse gestures</a> sketched with a computer mouse or a <a href="Stylus_(computing)" title="Stylus (computing)">stylus</a>.</li>

<li><i><a href="Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">Graphical user interfaces</a></i> (GUI) accept input via devices such as a computer keyboard and mouse and provide articulated <a href="Graphical" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphical">graphical</a> output on the <a href="Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">computer monitor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are at least two different principles widely used in GUI design: <a href="Object-oriented_user_interface" title="Object-oriented user interface">Object-oriented user interfaces</a> (OOUIs) and <a href="Application_software" title="Application software">application</a>-oriented interfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><i>Hardware interfaces</i> are the physical, spatial interfaces found on products in the real world from toasters, to car dashboards, to airplane cockpits. They are generally a mixture of knobs, buttons, sliders, switches, and touchscreens.</li>

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</style><span class="vanchor"><span class="vanchor-text">Holographic user interfaces</span></span></i> provide input to electronic or electro-mechanical devices by passing a finger through reproduced holographic images of what would otherwise be tactile controls of those devices, floating freely in the air, detected by a wave source and without tactile interaction.</li>

<li><i><a href="Intelligent_user_interfaces" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligent user interfaces">Intelligent user interfaces</a></i> are human–machine interfaces that aim to improve the efficiency, effectiveness, and naturalness of human–machine interaction by representing, reasoning, and acting on models of the user, domain, task, discourse, and media (e.g., graphics, natural language, gesture).</li>

<li><i><a href="Motion_capture" title="Motion capture">Motion tracking</a> interfaces</i> monitor the user's body motions and translate them into commands, some techniques of which were at one point patented by Apple.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><i>Multi-screen interfaces</i>, employ multiple displays to provide a more flexible interaction. This is often employed in computer game interaction in both the commercial arcades and more recently the handheld markets.</li>

<li><i><a href="Natural_language_user_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural language user interface">Natural-language interfaces</a></i> are used for search engines and on webpages. User types in a question and waits for a response.</li>

<li><i>Non-command user interfaces</i>, which observe the user to infer their needs and intentions, without requiring that they formulate explicit commands.<sup id="cite_ref-noncommand_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-noncommand-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><i><a href="Object-oriented_user_interface" title="Object-oriented user interface">Object-oriented user interfaces</a> (OOUI)</i> are based on <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented programming</a> metaphors, allowing users to <a href="Direct_manipulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct manipulation">manipulate</a> simulated objects and their properties.</li>

<li><i>Permission-driven user interfaces</i> show or conceal menu options or functions depending on the user's level of permissions. The system is intended to improve the user experience by removing items that are unavailable to the user. A user who sees functions that are unavailable for use may become frustrated. It also provides an enhancement to security by hiding functional items from unauthorized persons.</li>

<li><i>Reflexive user interfaces</i> where the users control and redefine the entire system via the user interface alone, for instance to change its command verbs. Typically, this is only possible with very rich graphic user interfaces.</li>

<li><i>Search interface</i> is how the search box of a site is displayed, as well as the visual representation of the search results.</li>

<li><i><a href="Tangible_user_interface" title="Tangible user interface">Tangible user interfaces</a></i>, which place a greater emphasis on touch and physical environment or its element.</li>

<li><i><a href="Task-focused_interface" title="Task-focused interface">Task-focused interfaces</a></i> are user interfaces which address the <a href="Information_overload" title="Information overload">information overload</a> problem of the <a href="Desktop_metaphor" title="Desktop metaphor">desktop metaphor</a> by making tasks, not files, the primary unit of interaction.</li>

<li><i><a href="Text-based_user_interface" title="Text-based user interface">Text-based user interfaces</a></i> (TUIs) are user interfaces which interact via text. TUIs include <a href="Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">command-line interfaces</a> and text-based <a href="WIMP_(computing)" title="WIMP (computing)">WIMP</a> environments.</li>

<li><i><a href="Touchscreen" title="Touchscreen">Touchscreens</a></i> are displays that accept input by touch of fingers or a <a href="Stylus" title="Stylus">stylus</a>. Used in a growing amount of <a href="Mobile_device" title="Mobile device">mobile devices</a> and many types of <a href="Point_of_sale" title="Point of sale">point of sale</a>, industrial processes and machines, self-service machines, etc.</li>

<li><i><a href="Touch_user_interface" title="Touch user interface">Touch user interface</a></i> are graphical user interfaces using a <a href="Touchpad" title="Touchpad">touchpad</a> or touchscreen display as a combined input and output device. They supplement or replace other forms of output with <a href="Haptic_communication" title="Haptic communication">haptic</a> feedback methods. Used in computerized <a href="Simulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Simulator">simulators</a>, etc.</li>

<li><i><a href="Voice_user_interface" title="Voice user interface">Voice user interfaces</a></i>, which accept input and provide output by generating voice prompts. The user input is made by pressing keys or buttons, or responding verbally to the interface.</li>

<li><i>Zero-input interfaces</i> get inputs from a set of sensors instead of querying the user with input dialogs.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><i><a href="Zooming_user_interface" title="Zooming user interface">Zooming user interfaces</a></i> are graphical user interfaces in which information objects are represented at different levels of scale and detail, and where the user can change the scale of the viewed area in order to show more detail.</li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2></div>

<div class="gallerytext">Historic HMI in the driver's cabin of a <a href="Deutsche_Bahn" title="Deutsche Bahn">German</a> <a href="Steam_locomotive" title="Steam locomotive">steam locomotive</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Modern HMI in the driver's cabin of a <a href="Deutsche_Bahn" title="Deutsche Bahn">German</a> <a href="Intercity-Express" class="mw-redirect" title="Intercity-Express">Intercity-Express</a> high-speed train</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">The HMI of a toilette (in Japan)</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Voice_user_interface" title="Voice user interface">Voice user interface</a> of a <a href="Wearable_computer" title="Wearable computer">wearable computer</a> (<i>here: <a href="Google_Glass" title="Google Glass">Google Glass</a></i>)</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">HMI for audio mixing</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">HMI for <a href="Video_production" title="Video production">video production</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">HMI of a machine for the sugar industry with pushbuttons</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">HMI for a <a href="Computer_numerical_control" title="Computer numerical control">computer numerical control</a> (CNC)</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Slightly newer HMI for a CNC-machine</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Emergency switch/panic switch</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">DMD 5620 terminal</div>

</li>

</ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Adaptive_user_interfaces" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive user interfaces">Adaptive user interfaces</a></li>

<li><a href="Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_user_satisfaction" title="Computer user satisfaction">Computer user satisfaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct_voice_input" title="Direct voice input">Direct voice input</a></li>

<li><a href="Distinguishable_interfaces" title="Distinguishable interfaces">Distinguishable interfaces</a></li>

<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a> and <a href="Human_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors">human factors</a></li>

<li><a href="Flat_design" title="Flat design">Flat design</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_GUI" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the GUI">History of the GUI</a></li>

<li><a href="Useware" title="Useware">Useware</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_artifact" title="Virtual artifact">Virtual artifact</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_user_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual user interface">Virtual user interface</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://l5392.com/blog">"Eurotherm Parker SSD Link Hardware L5392 | Automation Industrial"</a>. <i>l5392.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1992" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Philip R. (1992). "The role of natural language in a multimodal interface". <i>Proceedings of the 5th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology - UIST '92</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">143–</span>149. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F142621.142641">10.1145/142621.142641</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0897915496</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9010570">9010570</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uxpamagazine.org/the-user-experience-of-libraries/">"The User Experience of Libraries: Serving The Common Good User Experience Magazine"</a>. <i>uxpamagazine.org</i>. 7 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin,_BenBaston,_Laurel" class="citation journal cs1">Griffin, Ben; Baston, Laurel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://peace.saumag.edu/faculty/kardas/Courses/CS/Interfaces2007_files/Interfaces2007.ppt">"Interfaces"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Presentation)</span>: 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714160915/http://peace.saumag.edu/faculty/kardas/Courses/CS/Interfaces2007_files/Interfaces2007.ppt">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2014</span>. <q>The user interface of a mechanical system, a vehicle or an industrial installation is sometimes referred to as the human–machine interface (HMI).</q></cite> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (help)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Nigeria-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nigeria_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nigeria_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nigeria_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nigeria_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nou.edu.ng/NOUN_OCL/pdf/SST/CIT%20811.pdf">"User Interface Design and Ergonomics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Course Cit 811</i>. NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA: SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: 19. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714234100/http://www.nou.edu.ng/NOUN_OCL/pdf/SST/CIT%20811.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 14 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2014</span>. <q>In practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used although some may claim that MMI stands for something different now.</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Introduction Section". <i>Recent advances in business administration</i>. [S.l.]: Wseas. 2010. p. 190. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-960-474-161-8</bdi>. <q>Other terms used are operator interface console (OIC) and operator interface terminal (OIT)</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCiprianiSegilBirdwellWeir2014" class="citation journal cs1">Cipriani, Christian; Segil, Jacob; Birdwell, Jay; Weir, Richard (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4501393">"Dexterous control of a prosthetic hand using fine-wire intramuscular electrodes in targeted extrinsic muscles"</a>. <i>IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering</i>. <b>22</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">828–</span>36. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTNSRE.2014.2301234">10.1109/TNSRE.2014.2301234</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1534-4320">1534-4320</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4501393">4501393</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24760929">24760929</a>. <q>Neural co-activations are present that in turn generate significant EMG levels and hence unintended movements in the case of the present human machine interface (HMI).</q></cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCiti2009" class="citation journal cs1">Citi, Luca (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://7c4745ab-a-cdf32725-s-sites.googlegroups.com/a/neurostat.mit.edu/lciti/publications_files/LCitiPhD.pdf?attachauth=ANoY7cpwRib4-7KUnST5NrulgpbLiT3r10hOeyap9QXEgv64E1VioXR7n1pQYsNBNMZggwnI2V4KbZLgxVeKLcOgxz4XfJFAkqvddyQUnGqn4Mm5iLq9vDR02cHmYi6ULrK8IxWK150SirIt9acjMFcDon0dbnRwgYicc-2GeKZZCqtflZc4ZhEBORg8AzWE31XDAgoFFAfNtUxTcNR8IcJlsM7NYCGxY4M3Vn8WY6bsO1MEuyYIjmU%3D&attredirects=0">"Development of a neural interface for the control of a robotic hand"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, Pisa, Italy: IMT Institute for Advanced Studies Lucca: 5<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (help)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJordan" class="citation journal cs1">Jordan, Joel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www0.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/j.jordan/thesis-jj-2011.pdf">"Gaze Direction Analysis for the Investigation of Presence in Immersive Virtual Environments"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy)</span>. University of London: Department of Computer Science: 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714235740/http://www0.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/j.jordan/thesis-jj-2011.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 14 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2014</span>. <q>The aim of this thesis is to investigate the idea that the direction of gaze may be used as a device to detect a sense-of-presence in Immersive Virtual Environments (IVE) in some contexts.</q></cite> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (help)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRavi2009" class="citation web cs1">Ravi (August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ravi-softwares.blogspot.com/2009/08/introduction-of-hmi.html">"Introduction of HMI"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714233957/http://ravi-softwares.blogspot.com/2009/08/introduction-of-hmi.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2014</span>. <q>In some circumstance computers might observe the user, and react according to their actions without specific commands. A means of tracking parts of the body is required, and sensors noting the position of the head, direction of gaze and so on have been used experimentally. This is particularly relevant to immersive interfaces.</q></cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-anaheimguide-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-anaheimguide_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anaheimautomation.com/manuals/forms/hmi-guide.php#sthash.2McqS5xo.dpbs">"HMI Guide"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140620001341/http://www.anaheimautomation.com/manuals/forms/hmi-guide.php#sthash.2McqS5xo.dpbs">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2014.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRichard" class="citation web cs1">Richard, Stéphane. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.petesqbsite.com/sections/express/issue21/tuiseriespart1.htm">"Text User Interface Development Series Part One – T.U.I. Basics"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141116034613/http://www.petesqbsite.com/sections/express/issue21/tuiseriespart1.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-harding-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harding_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harding_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harding_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMcCown" class="citation journal cs1">McCown, Frank. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.harding.edu/fmccown/gui/history-gui.pptx">"History of the Graphical User Interface (GUI)"</a>. Harding University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141108121810/http://www.harding.edu/fmccown/gui/history-gui.pptx">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2014.</cite> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (help)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/dept/SUL/sites/mac/parc.html">"The Xerox PARC Visit"</a>. <i>web.stanford.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apple-history.com/gui">"apple-history.com / Graphical User Interface (GUI)"</a>. <i>apple-history.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-artofunix-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-artofunix_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRaymond2003" class="citation book cs1">Raymond, Eric Steven (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepage.cs.uri.edu/~thenry/resources/unix_art/ch11s03.html">"11"</a>. <i>The Art of Unix Programming</i>. Thyrsus Enterprises. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141020023039/http://homepage.cs.uri.edu/~thenry/resources/unix_art/ch11s03.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFC._A._D'H_GoughR._GreenM._Billinghurst" class="citation journal cs1">C. A. D'H Gough; R. Green; M. Billinghurst. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220998465">"Accounting for User Familiarity in User Interfaces"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (help)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="99-067972" class="citation book cs1">Sweet, David (October 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openbooks.sourceforge.net/books/kde20devel/ch09.html">"9 – Constructing A Responsive User Interface"</a>. <i>KDE 2.0 Development</i>. Sams Publishing. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130923224705/http://openbooks.sourceforge.net/books/kde20devel/ch09.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_W._SatzingerLorne_Olfman1998" class="citation journal cs1">John W. Satzinger; Lorne Olfman (March 1998). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1189510">"User interface consistency across end-user applications: the effects on mental models"</a></span>. <i>Journal of Management Information Systems</i>. Managing virtual workplaces and teleworking with information technology. <b>14</b> (4). Armonk, NY: <span class="nowrap">167–</span>193. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07421222.1998.11518190">10.1080/07421222.1998.11518190</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Raskin-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Raskin_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Raskin_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRaskin2000" class="citation book cs1">Raskin, Jef (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/humaneinterfacen00rask"><i>The human interface : new directions for designing interactive systems</i></a></span> (1. printing. ed.). Reading, Mass. [u.a.]: Addison Wesley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-201-37937-6</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFUdell2003" class="citation news cs1">Udell, John (9 May 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infoworld.com/article/2681144/application-development/interfaces-are-habit-forming.amp.html">"Interfaces are habit-forming"</a>. <i>Infoworld</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170404131503/http://www.infoworld.com/article/2681144/application-development/interfaces-are-habit-forming.amp.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-:0-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oryzo.com/user-interface-design/">"User Interface & User Experience Design | Oryzo | Small Business UI/UX"</a>. <i>Oryzo</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-:1-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWesolko2016" class="citation web cs1">Wesolko, Dane (27 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medium.com/@danewesolko/peter-morvilles-user-experience-honeycomb-904c383b6886">"Peter Morville's User Experience Honeycomb"</a>. <i>Medium</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-cbc-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cbc_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFErrett" class="citation web cs1">Errett, Joshua. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/toronto-chatbots-1.3581791">"As app fatigue sets in, Toronto engineers move on to chatbots"</a>. <i>CBC</i>. CBC/Radio-Canada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160622075925/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/toronto-chatbots-1.3581791">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMartinez2011" class="citation journal cs1">Martinez, Wendy L. (23 February 2011). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wics.150">"Graphical user interfaces: Graphical user interfaces"</a></span>. <i>Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics</i>. <b>3</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">119–</span>133. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fwics.150">10.1002/wics.150</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:60467930">60467930</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLamb2001" class="citation web cs1">Lamb, Gordana (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130814153652/http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa227601(v=vs.60).aspx">"Improve Your UI Design Process with Object-Oriented Techniques"</a>. <i>Visual Basic Developer magazine</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa227601(v=vs.60).aspx">the original</a> on 14 August 2013. <q>Table 1. Differences between the traditional application-oriented and object-oriented approaches to UI design.</q></cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/09/06/18/apple_exploring_motion_tracking_mac_os_x_user_interface.html">appleinsider.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090619212919/http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/09/06/18/apple_exploring_motion_tracking_mac_os_x_user_interface.html">Archived</a> 2009-06-19 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>

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<li id="cite_note-noncommand-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-noncommand_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJakob_Nielsen1993" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Jakob_Nielsen_(usability_consultant)" title="Jakob Nielsen (usability consultant)">Jakob Nielsen</a> (April 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.useit.com/papers/noncommand.html">"Noncommand User Interfaces"</a>. <i>Communications of the ACM</i>. <b>36</b> (4). ACM Press: <span class="nowrap">83–</span>99. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F255950.153582">10.1145/255950.153582</a></span>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7684922">7684922</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061110102842/http://www.useit.com/papers/noncommand.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2006.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharon, Taly, Henry Lieberman, and Ted Selker. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ted_Selker/publication/221607708_A_zero-input_interface_for_leveraging_group_experience_in_Web_browsing/links/0912f50876bda91a5b000000/A-zero-input-interface-for-leveraging-group-experience-in-Web-browsing.pdf">A zero-input interface for leveraging group experience in web browsing</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170908113001/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ted_Selker/publication/221607708_A_zero-input_interface_for_leveraging_group_experience_in_Web_browsing/links/0912f50876bda91a5b000000/A-zero-input-interface-for-leveraging-group-experience-in-Web-browsing.pdf">Archived</a> 2017-09-08 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." Proceedings of the 8th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces. ACM, 2003.</span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/user_interface" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/user interface">user interface</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:User_interfaces" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:User interfaces">User interfaces</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/conference_series/overview">Conference series</a> – covering a wide area of user interface publications</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/taouu/html/ch02.html">Chapter 2. History: A brief history of user interfaces</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="User_interfaces152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Natural-language_user_interface" title="Natural-language user interface">Natural-language user interfaces</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chatbot" title="Chatbot">Chatbot</a></li>

<li><a href="Dialogue_system" title="Dialogue system">Dialogue system</a></li>

<li><a href="Voice_user_interface" title="Voice user interface">Voice user interfaces</a></li>

<li><a href="Conversational_user_interface" title="Conversational user interface">Conversational user interface</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_assistant" title="Virtual assistant">Virtual assistant</a></li>

<li><a href="Voice_search" title="Voice search">Voice search</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">Graphical user interfaces</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Graphical_widget" title="Graphical widget">Widgets</a></li>

<li><a href="Zooming_user_interface" title="Zooming user interface">Zooming user interface</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Touch_user_interface" title="Touch user interface">Touch user interfaces</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Multi-touch" title="Multi-touch">Multi-touch</a></li>

<li><a href="Tangible_user_interface" title="Tangible user interface">Tangible user interface</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="3D_user_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="3D user interface">3D user interfaces</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">Augmented</a> and <a href="Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">virtual reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Finger_tracking" title="Finger tracking">Finger tracking</a></li>

<li><a href="Positional_tracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Positional tracking">Positional tracking</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other user interfaces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Text-based_user_interface" title="Text-based user interface">Text-based user interface</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_user_interface" title="Natural user interface">Natural user interface</a></li>

<li><a href="Multimodal_interaction" title="Multimodal interaction">Multimodal user interface</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Operating_systems310" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Operating_systems310" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_operating_systems" title="Comparison of operating systems">Comparison</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_software_engineering" title="Forensic software engineering">Forensic engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_operating_systems" title="History of operating systems">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_operating_systems" title="Timeline of operating systems">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="Usage_share_of_operating_systems" title="Usage share of operating systems">Usage share</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_user_features_of_operating_systems" title="Comparison of user features of operating systems">User features comparison</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Disk_operating_system" title="Disk operating system">Disk operating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributed_operating_system" title="Distributed operating system">Distributed operating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Embedded_operating_system" title="Embedded operating system">Embedded operating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Hobbyist_operating_system" title="Hobbyist operating system">Hobbyist operating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Just_enough_operating_system" title="Just enough operating system">Just enough operating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_operating_system" title="Mobile operating system">Mobile operating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_operating_system" title="Network operating system">Network operating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Object-oriented_operating_system" title="Object-oriented operating system">Object-oriented operating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Real-time_operating_system" title="Real-time operating system">Real-time operating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Supercomputer_operating_system" title="Supercomputer operating system">Supercomputer operating system</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system)">Kernel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Architectures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Exokernel" title="Exokernel">Exokernel</a></li>

<li><a href="Hybrid_kernel" title="Hybrid kernel">Hybrid</a></li>

<li><a href="Microkernel" title="Microkernel">Microkernel</a></li>

<li><a href="Monolithic_kernel" title="Monolithic kernel">Monolithic</a></li>

<li><a href="Multikernel" title="Multikernel">Multikernel</a></li>

<li><a href="Vkernel" title="Vkernel">vkernel</a></li>

<li><a href="Rump_kernel" title="Rump kernel">Rump kernel</a></li>

<li><a href="Unikernel" title="Unikernel">Unikernel</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Device_driver" title="Device driver">Device driver</a></li>

<li><a href="Loadable_kernel_module" title="Loadable kernel module">Loadable kernel module</a></li>

<li><a href="User_space_and_kernel_space" title="User space and kernel space">User space and kernel space</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Process_management_(computing)" title="Process management (computing)">Process management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_multitasking" title="Computer multitasking">Computer multitasking</a> (<a href="Cooperative_multitasking" title="Cooperative multitasking">Cooperative</a>, <a href="Preemption_(computing)" title="Preemption (computing)">Preemptive</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Context_switch" title="Context switch">Context switch</a></li>

<li><a href="Interrupt" title="Interrupt">Interrupt</a></li>

<li><a href="Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">Process</a></li>

<li><a href="Process_control_block" title="Process control block">Process control block</a></li>

<li><a href="Thread_(computing)" title="Thread (computing)">Thread</a></li>

<li><a href="Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing">Time-sharing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="Scheduling_(computing)" title="Scheduling (computing)">Scheduling<br>algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Fixed-priority_pre-emptive_scheduling" title="Fixed-priority pre-emptive scheduling">Fixed-priority preemptive</a></li>

<li><a href="Multilevel_feedback_queue" title="Multilevel feedback queue">Multilevel feedback queue</a></li>

<li><a href="Round-robin_scheduling" title="Round-robin scheduling">Round-robin</a></li>

<li><a href="Shortest_job_next" title="Shortest job next">Shortest job next</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Memory_management_(operating_systems)" title="Memory management (operating systems)">Memory management</a>,<br><a href="System_resource" title="System resource">resource</a> protection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bus_error" title="Bus error">Bus error</a></li>

<li><a href="General_protection_fault" title="General protection fault">General protection fault</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_paging" title="Memory paging">Memory paging</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_protection" title="Memory protection">Memory protection</a></li>

<li><a href="Protection_ring" title="Protection ring">Protection ring</a></li>

<li><a href="Segmentation_fault" title="Segmentation fault">Segmentation fault</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">Virtual memory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">Storage</a> access,<br><a href="File_system" title="File system">file systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Booting#BOOT-LOADER" title="Booting">Boot loader</a></li>

<li><a href="Defragmentation" title="Defragmentation">Defragmentation</a></li>

<li><a href="Device_file" title="Device file">Device file</a></li>

<li><a href="File_attribute" title="File attribute">File attribute</a></li>

<li><a href="Inode" title="Inode">Inode</a></li>

<li><a href="Journaling_file_system" title="Journaling file system">Journal</a></li>

<li><a href="Disk_partitioning" title="Disk partitioning">Partition</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_file_system" title="Virtual file system">Virtual file system</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_tape_library" title="Virtual tape library">Virtual tape library</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Supporting concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li>

<li><a href="Shell_(computing)" title="Shell (computing)">Shell</a>

</ul></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Computer_science1050" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Computer_science1050" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 <a href="ACM_Computing_Classification_System" title="ACM Computing Classification System">ACM Computing Classification System</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li>

<li><a href="Peripheral" title="Peripheral">Peripheral</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li>

<li><a href="Very-large-scale_integration" title="Very-large-scale integration">Very-large-scale integration</a></li>

<li><a href="System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">System on a chip</a> (SoC)</li>

<li><a href="Green_computing" title="Green computing">Energy consumption</a> (green computing)</li>

<li><a href="Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardware_acceleration" title="Hardware acceleration">Hardware acceleration</a></li>

<li><a href="Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">Processor</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computer systems organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_complexity" title="Computational complexity">Computational complexity</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependability" title="Dependability">Dependability</a></li>

<li><a href="Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li>

<li><a href="Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyber-physical_system" title="Cyber-physical system">Cyber-physical system</a></li>

<li><a href="Fault_tolerance" title="Fault tolerance">Fault tolerance</a></li>

<li><a href="Wireless_sensor_network" title="Wireless sensor network">Wireless sensor network</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">Networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Network_architecture" title="Network architecture">Network architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Network protocol</a></li>

<li><a href="Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Network components</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_scheduler" title="Network scheduler">Network scheduler</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_performance" title="Network performance">Network performance evaluation</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_service" title="Network service">Network service</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a></li>

<li><a href="Middleware" title="Middleware">Middleware</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Software notations</a> and <a href="Programming_tool" title="Programming tool">tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></li>

<li><a href="Compiler_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler construction">Compiler</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_framework" title="Software framework">Software framework</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li>

<li><a href="Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Software library</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_repository" title="Software repository">Software repository</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Control_flow" title="Control flow">Control variable</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process</a></li>

<li><a href="Requirements_analysis" title="Requirements analysis">Requirements analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_construction" title="Software construction">Software construction</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_team" title="Programming team">Programming team</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source model</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">Model of computation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Stochastic_computing" title="Stochastic computing">Stochastic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li>

<li><a href="Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algorithm_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithm design">Algorithm design</a></li>

<li><a href="Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a></li>

<li><a href="Algorithmic_efficiency" title="Algorithmic efficiency">Algorithmic efficiency</a></li>

<li><a href="Randomized_algorithm" title="Randomized algorithm">Randomized algorithm</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics of <a href="Computing" title="Computing">computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">Discrete mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li>

<li><a href="Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_software" title="Mathematical software">Mathematical software</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">Mathematical analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Information_system" title="Information system">Information systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Database" title="Database">Database management system</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Information storage systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_software" title="Social software">Social information systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li>

<li><a href="Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">Decision support system</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_process_control" title="Industrial process control">Process control system</a></li>

<li><a href="Multimedia_database" title="Multimedia database">Multimedia information system</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li>

<li><a href="Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_marketing" title="Digital marketing">Digital marketing</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Information retrieval</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_security" title="Computer security">Security</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hacker</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_service_(telecommunication)" title="Security service (telecommunication)">Security services</a></li>

<li><a href="Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardware_security" title="Hardware security">Hardware security</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></li>

<li><a href="Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-centered_computing">Human–centered computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Interaction_design" title="Interaction design">Interaction design</a></li>

<li><a href="Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">Augmented reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Accessibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">Mobile computing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">Automated planning and scheduling</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Search methodology</a></li>

<li><a href="Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control method</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">Distributed artificial intelligence</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">Supervised learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">Unsupervised learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinforcement_learning" title="Reinforcement learning">Reinforcement learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-task_learning" title="Multi-task learning">Multi-task learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross-validation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">Rendering</a></li>

<li><a href="Photograph_manipulation" title="Photograph manipulation">Photograph manipulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a></li>

<li><a href="Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></li>

<li><a href="Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied computing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a></li>

<li><a href="E-commerce" title="E-commerce">E-commerce</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">Enterprise software</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_mathematics" title="Computational mathematics">Computational mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_social_science" title="Computational social science">Computational social science</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_engineering" title="Computational engineering">Computational engineering</a></li>

<li>Differentiable computing</li>

<li><a href="Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Computational healthcare</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_publishing" title="Electronic publishing">Electronic publishing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_voting" title="Electronic voting">Electronic voting</a></li>

<li><a href="Video_game" title="Video game">Video games</a></li>

<li><a href="Word_processor" title="Word processor">Word processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Document_management_system" title="Document management system">Document management</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"></span></span> <a href="Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> Glossaries</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47146#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1857" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47146#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1857" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4720440-0">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="User interfaces (Computer systems)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh88001679">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Interfaces utilisateur (informatique)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12377521f">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Interfaces utilisateur (informatique)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12377521f">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="ユーザーインターフェース"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/01190552">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="uživatelská rozhraní"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph126971&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007534346305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/20387aaf-212f-427e-b09b-2271c614889a">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-05-25" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=User_interface&oldid=1292076320">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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